A temple facade where women served as priestesses
BOOK I: Realities identifies the issues that women faced in the ancient world. Issues such as rape, contraception, and purdah faced all women in the three stages of their lives: maid, matron, and crone. It also discusses the sacred lore, the issues and customs, and the daily trials that women experienced from the day of their birth. This book evaluates the conditions that existed in the ancient world, conditions that shaped the lives of women. Marriage customs, motherhood, sexual mutilation, the harvesting of healing herbs, religion, and even war—all affected woman’s reality. More especially, the book traces the thin threads of history that have set the pattern of the present status of women. Throughout all the books, Points to Ponder written at the end of each section, raises questions that show modern women how the ancient status of these important, universal stages of life influence their own present condition.
A woman collecting honey, Paleolithic cave drawing
BOOK II: Expressions highlights the roles foisted on women and the achievements they made––despite tradition, suspicion, and taboo. The book also discusses the traditional roles of daughter, wife, and mother, as well as the venerated roles of Queen Mother and grandmother. Also, it illuminates the challenge of other traditional roles such as courtesan, captive, and priestess to the more natural role of avenger, builder, healer, and ruler.
BOOK III EGYPT: Intrepid Queens of Ancient Egypt: Women Pharaohs of Dynasty I Through the Ptolemaic Period.
From its unification dating from 3150 BCE, this oldest of civilizations gloried its world with presence, power, and knowledge. It was afforded respect for its leadership throughout the world stage. Known for its arcane knowledge of medicine, miraculous tombs, reverence for the dead, and military leadership throughout the Mediterranean and Levant––the entire then-known world–– Egypt battled with other great powers and triumphed. Every culture looked to Egypt as the master of astronomy, science, mathematics, engineering, and governance. Scholars and leaders traveled from remote lands to glean knowledge of the learned scribes, who kept meticulous records, understood and transcribed letters from foreign kings in native languages, wrote cuneiform script on clay tablets, and commanded the art of mummification in preparation for a life hereafter. Fifth century BCE scholar, historian, and geographer, “Father of History,” Herodotus, was privileged to absorb and report such learning.
A rise to power originally meant that the pretender marry the heiress, daughter of the pharaoh. Through such means, commoners like Thutmose I and his acclaimed military son, Thutmose III, could rise from nothing to greatness. Women, too, could become pharaoh when there was no suitable male heir. Several worthy women: Merneith––the first woman ruler in the civilized world, was the wife of a pharaoh, the mother of a pharaoh, and a pharaoh herself— Nitocris, Twosret, Hatshepsut, and Sobekneferu also ruled Egypt as pharaohs. Many other women like Queens Nefertiti, and Queen Tiye I co-ruled with their husbands, and most heroic was Queen Aähotep, who ruled, without title, in place of her infant son, Ahmose I, during the treacherous Hyksos invasion.
Other women, several Cleopatras like mother and daughter, Cleopatras II and III, and a Berenice reigned as monarchs. In the Ptolemaic Period, a most outstanding co-ruler was Arsinoë II, who married her brother Ptolemy II, and brought wisdom, experience, and success to his reign.
As in other cultures, rulers gained prestige through the harems filled with beautiful women gained through battles or treaties from neighboring countries. Not all women tolerated such incarceration, no matter how luxurious, those plotted and schemed the assassination of the pharaoh. Egypt suffered two Harem Conspiracies. Such outrage demanded horrible torture and death for the perpetrators. Conversely, ordinary Egyptian women enjoyed equality, freedom, and power as no other women in the ancient world. Egyptians valued their women. Perhaps only Etruscan and Spartan women experienced similar equality and freedom.
The world’s first sphinx honored Queen Hetepheres II. The only surviving colossal statue of an Old Kingdom queen is that of Queen Khamerernebty II, daughter-in-law of the great pyramid builder, Khafre. One of the largest Queens’ Pyramid Complexes ever built was the gift of Pharaoh Userkaf for his wife, Queen Neferhetepes, and possibly his powerful Queen Mother Khentkaus I.
Egypt built the tallest building in the then-recognized world, a pyramid considered one of the Wonders of the Ancient World and left an impressive legacy of renowned inventions like the nilometer that measured the fluctuations of the River Nile; a solar calendar; writing; embalming; surgery; fine transparent weaving of linen; gold inlaid furniture; and the development of beer.
Old Egypt held its prestige and power for thousands of years; however, it suffered a reversal of fate when non-royals became “pharaohs” who disregarded duty and neglected the state. Nubians, Libyans, Assyrians, and Persians easily conquered an unwatched land. Yet another reversal came when Alexander the Great conquered Persia and set his General, Ptolemy, on the throne. Ptolemy’s line rebuilt Egypt’s power for the next three hundred years, built the great Pharos Lighthouse to guide safe landings into port, and the magnificent Alexandrian library complex, the greatest cultural center of the ancient world.
One of Egypt’s greatest accomplishments is that it is the only highly civilized culture that welcomed a woman to rule thirty centuries before the Common Era.
BOOK IV CHINA: From Concubinage, Empresses Achieve the Pinnacle of Power.
China is the oldest extant culture in the world, still a world player. Along with Sumer, and Egypt, China is one of the world’s most ancient civilizations dating from the Shang dynasty 1600 BCE, three thousand years ago. Unlike Sumer, which was never ruled by a woman unless we can include Kubaba, first woman monarch who preceded and was much envied by Sargon the Great of Akkad. However, like Egypt, which had its share of powerful women pharaohs, China was periodically ruled by a Regnant Empress.
Monarchs ruled under the Mandate of Heaven, the blessings of the gods, as long as they maintained proper conduct and wise leadership. Five famous empresses, some of whom ruled wisely and some who probably did not enjoy the Mandate of Heaven are notable for their political skill or skullduggery:
- Empress Lü Zhi, 241 BCE–242 BCE, ruled from behind the closed doors of her apartments after her husband, Emperor Gaodi, founder and first emperor of the Han dynasty died. Her jealous rage painfully destroyed a concubine she thought had been her husband’s favorite. That unmerciful torture––living dismemberment––of a woman is rarely known in history. The memory of her cruelty echoed throughout China’s ancient world and warned of a woman ruler.
- Empress Jia Nanfeng, 257–300 CE, an iniquitous woman who provoked the War of the Eight Princes, which led to the Wu Hu rebellions. She is guilty of the Jin dynasty’s loss of central and northern China. She married crown prince Sima Zhong who became Emperor Hui of Jin. She ruled the Jin empire nine years, 292–300 CE, by dominating the developmentally disabled emperor, her husband, Hui. Her reign, punctuated with jealousy and vindictive acts, ended when she was forced to drink a poison elixir.
- Empress Zhangsun, 601–636 CE, formally Empress Wendeshunsheng, literally “the civil, virtuous, serene, and holy empress.” A noted essayist, she was an educated woman from a prominent family. When she married Emperor Taizong of the Tang dynasty, she became empress and mother of the future Emperor Gaozong. Unlike her predecessors, she was known for her decency and deportment worthy of the Mandate of Heaven.
- Empress Wu Zetian, 625-705 CE, also of the Tang, decisive and determined, Wu was so powerful and effective a leader, moving China to greater deeds, the citizens considered her to be emperor. Criticized for: banishing her avaricious and ambitious sons to the far reaches of China––far from where they had no power to assassinate her––; punishing those who opposed her edicts, and honoring informants of indiscretions against her; and surrounding herself with supportive officials, her undertakings mirrored the very actions every emperor in history had implemented. A free thinker with Manchurian blood and history, Wu empowered women to ride horses wearing trousers, and to view themselves as citizens. Without regard to political correctness or traditional taboos or of the negative expectations of women, “she stabilized and consolidated the Tang dynastyat a time when it appeared to be crumbling—a significant achievement, since the Tang period is reckoned the golden age of Chinese civilization.”
According to the Smithsonian, “[Empress Wu Zetian] held power, in one guise or another, for more than half a century, first as consort of the ineffectual Emperor Gaozong, then as the power behind the throne held by her youngest son, and finally from 690 until shortly before her death in 705, as monarch.
Her biography reads, “The transformation of Chinese society in the Tang period from one dominated by a military and political aristocracy to one governed by a scholarly bureaucracy drawn from the gentry was promoted by her policy. The significance of this aspect of her rule was long obscured by the prejudice of Chinese historians against a usurping empress and her many acts of cruelty toward opponents. She established the new unified empire on a lasting basis and brought about needed social changes that stabilized the dynasty and ushered in one of the most fruitful ages of Chinese civilization.”
Wu had set one of her sons, the heir Ruizong, aside to rule herself. After her retirement, another son, ZhongZong, ruled. Unfortunately, he was married to Wei, a power-hungry woman eager to follow her mother-in-law’s successful rule of the realm.
- Empress Wei, 710 CE a blatantly corrupt woman. Without the high intelligence and royal experience of Empress Wu Zetian, Wei tried to follow in her footsteps. She tried everything to duplicate Wu’s strategies and power. Unfortunately, Wei’s husband, the weak and incompetent Emperor ZhongZong, second son of Wu Zetian, got in her way. He had become a puppet, emperor in name only. Wei manipulated possible supporters, removed and killed her enemies framing them with ingenious plots, exiled or executed them. When ZhongZong began to understand her guiles, she murdered him with a poisoned steamed cake, his favorite. This “act of love” was a forerunner to the infamous Roman empress, Agrippina II, who poisoned her uncle/husband, Emperor Claudius, by lacing his favorite dish of mushrooms with poison.
- Empress Cixi, Empress Dowager T’zu-hsi, 1835–1908 CE was one of the most powerful women in the history of China and active from the 1860s into the 1900s. Mothering two Chinese emperors, she acted as regent before they were of age and, like regents the world over, continued to wield substantial influence over China after they were formally in power.
Realizing, after many wars with the West, and seeing the advantage of modern strategies, upgraded military practice, and the advantage of tactical weapons, Empress Cixi embraced those centuries of others’ change and opened up communication channels. She invited foreigners to visit China, and brought the empire out of the dark, ancient world into the spotlight of the modern world. With forethought and education, Cixi effectively controlled the Chinese government in the late Qing dynasty for nearly a half-century, from 1861 until her death in 1908.
Cixi’s modernizing accomplishments included banning foot-binding, reforming the legal code and the education system, and outlawing certain barbaric punishments––like death from a thousand cuts. Cixi’s final goal was to transform China into a constitutional monarchy, an effort cut short by her death at age 72.
From the earliest Han dynasty to the latest Qing, Power Women—good and bad—have periodically ruled this ancient, venerable civilization from 200 BCE to the early twentieth century.
BOOK V JAPAN: From Empresses of Ancient Wa, Land of Mystery and Magic, to Shōguns and Powerful Women Samurai.
Compared to that of China, the culture of Japan was relatively new. Nomadic groups of hunter-gatherers migrated to Japan from both North and South Asia, presumably across land bridges which existed during the Ice Age. The Paleolithic Age in China dates from 2.5 million to 10,000 years ago during which the Matrilineal Clan Society was formed, a social system in which the mother was head of the family and descendance was traced through the mother’s side of the family. That may be why Himiko or Jingū were chosen to lead early Yamatai. Likewise, across the world in early Anatolia, matriliny was also prevalent as marriage was not yet a tradition; the woman had many partners, and the family was headed by the mother and her clan. Inheritance was through the mother.
Homo erectus, upright man, was present in the Japanese archipelago about 370,000 years ago. Gradually the species was replaced by homo sapiens, wise man, and by thirty thousand years ago, they were supplanted by the subspecies homo sapiens sapiens, that consists of the only living members of genus Homo, to which modern man belongs.
When First Empress Himiko, a shaman and leader of Yamatai-koku in the “Land of Wa” reigned from 189–249 CE, peace prevailed under the guidance of this wise and respected leader whose connection with the kami brought peace through spiritual grace.
Himiko ruled thirty cities for over forty-five years. Stepping out of an isolated island role, she communicated with Cao Rui, king of Wei in China’s Three Kingdom period. Cao Rui was so impressed with the “Queen of Wa,” that he sent multitudes of gifts including a lavish gift of a hundred highly polished bronze mirrors. Indeed, it was a respectful gift because mirrors were highly valued not only for their utility, but also for the magic they emitted.
Their relationship was reciprocal with emissaries traveling from China to Japan and back again. Japan flourished under the example of China’s long centuries of success, adapting China’s government, art, and religion through connection with China’s border neighbor, Korea, and Buddhist monks who traveled long distances. Still, even with the influence of older, successful countries, Japan grew from the land of magic––exerting its own energies and creativity––to develop its own character eventually evolving into a respected world player.
Throughout its history, Japan, the youngest of the ancient cultures, has been ruled by both men and women. This book is an account of the several empresses, their trials and victories.
Japan’s Women Emperors
The Japanese word tennō for the imperial leader or “emperor” is now applied retrospectively for all those who have ascended the throne, even though it was not always used historically. Unlike the English “emperor,” it is used with all heads of state, both women and men.
- Empress Suiko, 592–628 CE
The daughter of Emperor Kinmei, she ascended to the throne after the assassination of her predecessor, Emperor Sushun, by a member of the powerful Soga clan. With no immediate agreement on who would succeed, the selection of Suiko, whose mother was also in the Soga clan, was seen as bringing political stability. She oversaw an age in which Buddhism flourished and the temple Hōryūji was built in Nara. Japan also began diplomatic missions to China during her reign. - Empress Kōgyoku, 642–645 CE / Saimei, r. 655–661 CE
When there was no agreement on succession after the death of her husband, Emperor Jomei, with Soga wishes again a factor, the great-granddaughter of Emperor Bidatsu ascended to the throne under the name of Kōgyoku. She abdicated after a few years having witnessed an assassination at her very feet. Her younger brother became Emperor Kōtoku. When he died, there was again no clear candidate to succeed. She overcame the shocking bloody sight she had experienced, and once more, after a ten-year hiatus, assumed the throne, ruling under the name of Saimei. - Empress Jitō, 690–697 CE
The daughter of Emperor Tenji and the wife of her predecessor, Emperor Tenmu, she ascended to the throne as her son Prince Kusakabe had a strong rival to the succession at that time. Kusakabe died shortly after, so Jitō ruled until her grandson was old enough to succeed her as Emperor Monmu. - Empress Genmei, 707–715 CE
A younger half-sister of Empress Jitō and daughter of Emperor Tenji, she was also the wife of Prince Kusakabe and mother of Emperor Monmu. She ascended to the throne as her grandson–– later Emperor Shōmu––was too young to succeed at the time of Monmu’s death. - Empress Genshō, 715–724 CE
Empress Genmei broke precedence by choosing her daughter to succeed her. Genshō was the only woman to follow a woman in the imperial succession. As her father was Prince Kusakabe, the son of Emperor Tenmu, she was also in the male imperial line. She ascended the throne when Genmei abdicated after nine years, and the future Emperor Shōmu was still seen as too young to succeed. - Empress Kōken, 749–758 CE / Shōtoku, r. 764–770 CE
The daughter of Emperor Shōmu, she became the first woman to be officially designated as the first in line to the throne when his son died an early death. She ascended to the throne under the name Kōken but later abdicated, with her cousin becoming Emperor Junnin. During his reign, a power struggle intensified between him and the retired Kōken, backed by the Buddhist monk Dōkyō, who became her powerful favorite. When Junnin’s supporter Fujiwara no Nakamaro attempted to raise a rebellion to win back authority, Shōtoku’s forces were victorious. She dethroned Junnin and took the throne again to rule for six more years as Shōtoku. Critics would blame the Buddhist monk who supported her. Subsequently, people began to be concerned the power of Buddhism was commanding. - Empress Meishō, monarch 109, 1629–43 CE
She succeeded her father, Emperor Go-Mizunoo, who had no sons at the time he abdicated following a dispute between the Tokugawa shogunate and the imperial court. The shōgun eyed Go-Mizunoo with the suspicion that he was using his daughter as a shield so he could continue ruling. When Meishō’s young brother grew old enough to rule as Emperor Go-Kōmyō. Meishō followed Japanese precedence by abdicating in his favor, unlike Chinese women rulers who hung on tightly to the office.
- Empress Go-Sakuramachi, monarch 117, 1762–71 CE
The daughter of Emperor Sakuramachi, she ascended the throne after the death of Emperor Momozono as his designated successor was still too young to become emperor. Like Meishō, she later abdicated, and the boy became Emperor Go-Momozono.
Throughout periods of rebellion, plague, and financial difficulties, the two Empresses Meisho and Go-Sakuramachi, both daughters of shōguns, actually ruled during the deeply patriarchal Edo Period. Women warriors, legendary samurai, Onna-musha or Onna-bugeisha, also prevailed during this period.
Initial rule by the spiritual leader Himiko, a matriarch, was among the many unusual leadership trends of this young nation. After the shaman’s successful reign, men returned to historical power in patriarchy punctuated by intervention of women emperors when heirs were too young to rule or were not available. Under ordinary circumstances, emperors chose their sons as successors; however, Empress Genmei, monarch 43, passed over a young male heir and chose her daughter, Gensho, as monarch 44 according to traditional order of succession, an unheard-of choice. Also unlikely was the selection of a Buddhist nun, Suiko, monarch 33, 593–628 CE, to become empress. Her powerful king-maker uncle of the Soba clan was sorely mistaken to think he could manipulate her as his puppet.
Unprecedented ascendance to the throne occurred when a mother appointed her daughter as successor, an empress reigned a second time under a new name after witnessing an assassination at her feet. She returned to power to rule a second time with a name change. A nun was selected to rule, and daughters of shōguns rose to power as empress, with unlikely approval from shōgun fathers.
From two shamanesses of Ancient Wa––land of mystery and magic––to shōguns and powerful women samurai, Japan progressed from ancient times to modernity steadily and powerfully.